Cognative Behavioural Therapy CBT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cognative Behavioral Therapy CBT - Essay Example What is CBT? There are a few sorts of intellectual conduct treatment acclaimed by the National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists, for example, ‘dialectic conduct treatment, normal living and objective conduct treatment, or levelheaded emotive conduct therapy’ (Dryden 2002, p. 18). The substance of these methodologies is to cause a patient to know about triggers of his habit. It is pertinent to assist patients with developing new systems for managing focusing on circumstances and adapting to addictions, deferentially. During the procedure of an utilitarian examination, advisors causes the fanatic people to characterize their internal considerations and thoughts that happen within them during the procedure of medications/liquor utilization or after it. There is another alternative for advisors to build up a conduct model pertinent to the dependent people. Guides ought to have the option to distinguish unsafe circumstances when backslide may happen. For this si tuation it is applicable to create aptitudes that may assist a patient with overcoming this hazard. With this respect, it is conceivable to make bunch meetings and show customers expertise components by methods for â€Å"roleplaying and genuine practice practices that will empower them to apply these abilities to meet their own needs† (Marlatt 2007, p. 32). Customers ought to be guaranteed in accepting useful input from guides. A dependable social change may happen when self-adequacy desires are adjusted. CBT is effective for customers who are effectively engaged with treatment process and are happy to be liable for their future maltreatment anticipation. For this situation, during CBT a customer acquires solid practices rather than maladaptive propensities: â€Å"As the individual experiences a procedure of deconditioning, psychological rebuilding, and abilities securing, the person in question can start to acknowledge more prominent duty regarding changing the conduct. Thi s is simply the quintessence of the control or self-administration approach: one can figure out how to escape from the grip of the endless loop of compulsion, paying little mind to how the propensity design was initially acquired† (Rasmussen 2000, p. 116). It is significant for advocates to rehash required segments of manual before every meeting and feature essential focuses, which must be secured during an instructional meeting. It is significant for a customer to get notification from advocate a characteristic discourse and not simply tuning in to manual refering to. During every meeting, an advisor ought to educate the customer about the most significant issues for his day by day life. Now, client’s data and models from his life ought to be utilized by instructors as illustrative material. In this manner, CBT is viable on the off chance that pertinent measures are created by an advisor. So as to build up a significant treatment technique, it is important to direct in excess of 20 reported controlled preliminary tests, if to allude to information of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (The Official Website of the Institute). As a rule, it is additionally productive to join CBT with bunch bolster meetings and different kinds of help methodologies. It is additionally critical to build up an adaptable way to deal with CBT treatment improvement. An adaptable methodology infers an individual improvement of CBT for each patient. The principle advantage for CBT as a treatment for patients with addictions is its brief timeframe execution and a customized treatment. At present, CBT is generally utilized for patients with no insane issue, or the individuals who experience the ill effects of bipolar issue. A move to psychological

The Social Role of Women

Whenever solicited what is the social job from ladies? The most sensible answer would be that of a mother, a nurturer. Another person may state shoeless and pregnant however everything worked out to be something very similar, mediocrity. Consistently, ladies, for example, Mary Wollstonecraft battled to change this sex generalization. It is socially believed that ladies are sub-par compared to men, which is as yet the case in numerous nations. A Vindication on the Rights of Women was composed, thinking back to the 1700’s, where ladies were to be accommodating to their husbands.Disobedience was not endured. The cooking, cleaning, and raising of youngsters was the principle objective. Wollstonecraft called attention to in her compositions her disappointment of the administration, and how ladies were not permitted to take part in the policy driven issues however were required to maintain its laws. Ladies were inadequately taught, however expected to instruct their youngsters. Thus ly, kids got poor instructions [ (Wollstonecraft) ]. Indeed, even in this time; numerous ladies felt the burdens of their constrainment and needed to be all the more socially accepted.Women assumed significant jobs in forming this nation. During the Civil War, ladies, for example, Sarah Emma Edmonds went about as attendants, Union and Confederate officers, and even government operatives [ (Wilson) ]. After the Civil War, it realized huge change for women’s rights. Wollstonecraft needed equivalent open door in the political arrangement just as in the legislature. She composed a letter to M. Talleyrand Perigord, Late Bishop of Autun, she states, â€Å"I argue for my sex not for myself, in calling upon you currently to weigh what I have progressed regarding the privileges of lady and national education†. (Wollstonecraft) ] Wollstonecraft requested Perigord do an examination on the Constitution, and when it is reexamined that ladies be remembered for the amended rendition. As we take a gander at today’s social guidelines, we as ladies have made some amazing progress. We currently own organizations; we are in congress, and in any event, running for President. I do accept that a lady would have the option to run this nation similarly just as men. We are the spines of our men without us they would not have gone the extent that we have. We despite everything have a few deterrents to jump over.Now that we have broken out of the homes and into the work environment, we should now fight to be similarly paid and recognized as that of men. Ladies are neglected yet we are clearing our own specific manner to correspondence. One day we will be taken a gander at as an adversary and not a subordinate.Bibliography Wilson, Barbara A. Ladies were There. 3 December 2010 <http://userpages. aug. com/captbarb/femvets2. html>. Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication on the Rights of Women. New York, NY: Penguin Classics, 2004.

Free Essays on Pros and cons of Drinking

The accompanying exposition will acquaint you with advantages and disadvantages of drinking. It will likewise give you a reasonable comprehension in why you shouldn’t drink liquor. Liquor is a depressant; it disables your capacity to drive, hinders your response time and makes you settle on some dangerous choices that you wouldn’t regularly take. This article will likewise assist you with appreciating how and why things occur, due to liquor. Liquor abuse can murder from numerous points of view, and as a rule, individuals who drink consistently have a higher pace of passings from injury, viciousness, and a few tumors. The prior an individual starts drinking vigorously, the more prominent their possibility of creating genuine sicknesses later on. Any security that happens with moderate liquor consumption gives off an impression of being kept to grown-ups more than 60 who have dangers for coronary illness. Grown-ups who drink tolerably (around one beverage daily) have a lower death rate than their non-drinking peers, their hazard for less than ideal passing increments with heavier drinking. Liquor may not cause malignant growth, yet it most likely increases the cancer-causing impacts of different substances, for example, tobacco smoke. Every day drinking expands the hazard for lung, gastric, pancreatic, colorectal, urinary tract, liver, mind tumors, and leukemia. About 75% of diseases of the throat and half of tumors of the mouth, and throat are ascribed to liquor addiction. (Wine seems to present less threat for these malignancies than brew or hard alcohol.) Smoking joined with drinking upgrades dangers for the vast majority of these diseases drastically. At the point when ladies expend as meager as one beverage daily, they may expand their odds of bosom malignancy by as much as 30%. In the liver, liquor changes over to a much increasingly poisonous substance, which can cause considerable harm. Not eating when drinking and devouring an assortment of mixed refreshments are additionally factors that expansion the hazard for liver harm. Individuals with liquor abuse are likewise at higher hazard for hepatitis B and C, possibly interminable liver dis... Free Essays on Pros and cons of Drinking Free Essays on Pros and cons of Drinking The accompanying article will acquaint you with upsides and downsides of drinking. It will likewise give you a reasonable comprehension in why you shouldn’t drink liquor. Liquor is a depressant; it weakens your capacity to drive, hinders your response time and makes you settle on some dangerous choices that you wouldn’t ordinarily take. This paper will likewise assist you with understanding how and why things occur, in light of liquor. Liquor addiction can slaughter from various perspectives, and when all is said in done, individuals who drink consistently have a higher pace of passings from injury, savagery, and a few tumors. The previous an individual starts drinking intensely, the more prominent their possibility of creating genuine diseases later on. Any assurance that happens with moderate liquor admission seems, by all accounts, to be bound to grown-ups more than 60 who have dangers for coronary illness. Grown-ups who drink respectably (around one beverage daily) have a lower death rate than their non-drinking peers, their hazard for unfavorable passing increments with heavier drinking. Liquor may not cause disease, however it most likely increases the cancer-causing impacts of different substances, for example, tobacco smoke. Every day drinking expands the hazard for lung, gastric, pancreatic, colorectal, urinary tract, liver, cerebrum malignant growths, and leukemia. About 75% of malignant growths of the throat and half of tumors of the mouth, and throat are ascribed to liquor abuse. (Wine seems to present less threat for these malignancies than brew or hard alcohol.) Smoking joined with drinking upgrades dangers for a large portion of these tumors significantly. At the point when ladies expend as meager as one beverage daily, they may expand their odds of bosom malignant growth by as much as 30%. In the liver, liquor changes over to a considerably increasingly poisonous substance, which can cause generous harm. Not eating when drinking and expending an assortment of mixed refreshments are additionally factors that expansion the hazard for liver harm. Individuals with liquor addiction are additionally at higher hazard for hepatitis B and C, possibly constant liver dis...

Kiss Of The Spider Woman Essays - High School Musical, Free Essays

Kiss Of The Spider Woman Essays - High School Musical, Free Essays Kiss Of The Spider Woman In the play Fences, which was composed by August Wilson, Bono, Gabe, and Alberta are for the most part big cheeses in Troys life. Bono is Troys closest companion, and through him the peruser discovers that Troy is an exceptionally solid character. Through Gabe, individuals can see a portion of the blame Troy has inside. Alberta helped Troy escape from his issues, and have a couple of chuckles each once in for a spell. Every last one of these characters educates the peruser something else regarding Troy. Consistently, Bono has consistently been there for Troy. They have been companions for around eighteen years. Bono never delayed to disclose to Troy anything, particularly his sentiment on Alberta. I comprehend what Rose intends to you, Troy Im simply attempting to state I dont need to see you mess up. (p.63) Bonos words show the peruser the amount he thinks about Troy. Bono was constantly clear with Troy. He even stated, Thats right. I know you. I realize you got some Uncle Ramus in your blood. You got a larger number of stories than the villain got miscreants. (p.13) Much of Troy is appeared in Bono in light of the fact that he has been with him through the great occasions and the awful. Another character who has uncovered complexities about Troy is Gabe, Troys sibling. Gabe has a metal plate in his mind; brought about by his time in War World II. The legislature consequently gave Gabe month to month checks. The main way Troy had the option to pay for his home was through the legislatures cash. That is the main way I got a rooftop over my headCause of that metal plate. (p.28) When Gabe moved in with Miss Pearl, Troy began to feel remorseful. He was feeling culpability on the grounds that not exclusively was Gabes cash paying for Troys house, however now he was paying cash to Miss Pearl that could have been Troys. When Gabe stated, Got me two rooms. In the storm cellar. Got my own entryway key as well. (p.25) Troy felt exceptionally remorseful. He could have utilized that cash for his own family. Likewise, practically week by week Troy needed to pay $50 to get Gabe out of prison. Neighbors grumbled that he was upsetting the harmony. Gabe added to Troys character enorm ously. Alberta is another character that uncovers a portion of the complexities of Troy. Alberta is the lady with whom Troy had an unsanctioned romance. She helped Troy escape from his regular day to day existence issues. At the point when gotten some information about Alberta, Troy had answered, She gives me an alternate comprehension about myself. I can step out of this house and escape from the weights and problemsbe an alternate man. (p.69) When he is with Alberta he feels that he doesn't have anything to stress over. This is indicated when Troy says, I aint got the chance to think about how Im going to take care of the tabs or get the rooftop fixed. I can simply be a piece of myself I aint never been. (p.69) Alberta additionally helped Troy understand the estimation of obligation. At the point when Alberta died, Troy was the one in particular who initially needed to deal with Raynell, until Rose said she would. Alberta was significant in this play. All through this play, a considerable lot of Troys complexities are appeared through different characters. Through Gabe, Bono, and Alberta, Troy shows the entirety of his complexities as a man.

Just A Small Town Girl

Just A Small Town Girl Well hey there, blogosphere. Newbie #4 here. To the admissions officers here, Im known as the girl who draws things during class and has a somewhat-creepy fascination with all things Irish (I know, its only week 2 of being back and Matt McGann and Chris Peterson have already called me quirky and special translation: whyd we hired this creeper?). But [hopefully] to you guys, Im Elizabeth just your average course 20 (biological engineering) sophomore (whaaat, Im not the baby of campus anymore?? Crap.) here to tell you about life at this quirky and special place. I was born and raised in Columbia, MO â€" home of the Mizzou Tigers, Shakespeare’s Pizza, and the Kewpies (naked baby dolls that were my high school’s mascot. Seriously.) â€" located smack-dab in the middle of the U.S. While its definitely not as hick as it gets, Ive gotten stuck behind tractors driving to school, hit deer, etc. I couldnt fall asleep my first night at MIT because of the sirens and seeing the Boston skyline out of my window was a bizarre thing to get used to. But in addition to the people I met from Zimbabwe, NYC, and D.C., I found fellow midwesterners here with whom to reminisce about corn mazes. (And to reinforce stereotypes with, apparently.) On top of that, moving to a big city for college ended up giving me the best of both worlds Im a 10 minute walk away from the best parts of Boston, but I still get to fly to my awesome hometown for breaks. Sometimes I think my path to MIT wasnt a very normal one, but Ive realized after meeting so many people during my freshman year that there really isnt a normal path to MIT. I dreamt of becoming an entomologist and herpetologist from third to ninth grade (and admittedly, I still secretly dream of becoming an Animal Planet TV show host). I idolize Jeff Corwin like a nerdy MIT kid (eh, okay, I’m one to talk) idolizes Stephen Hawking. I flirted with the idea of a small, hipster liberal-arts college for most of high school. Its not as if suddenly I woke up one day wanting to be an engineer I just realized, over the course of my junior and senior years of high school, that the stuff I dreamed of doing as a kid was stuff that I still wanted to do with a little more science thrown in. I now get to study all sorts of bio-tastic things (not just snakes and bugs!) as a course 20 major, and while Im not exactly reading Plato under an oak tree (some folks here do, though!), I suppose I could b e found reading about Duke Ellington and Miles Davis in the lovely Killian Court last year (I took Jazz History and Jazz Harmony and Arranging, but Ill have to save that story for another post). Despite being a science nerd, my lifes really not all that enginerdy. When Im not in class, you can find me at home (Simmons Hall), playing cello in the symphony and Chamber Music Society, UROPing in Professor Bhatia’s bioengineering lab, chilling with my fellow Tech Catholic Community pals, showing off my child-care provider skills at the MIT Daycare, practicing for my future career in stand-up comedy, jammin with my musician hallmates, or â€" as of now â€" professionally blogging. I enjoy a good book of imagist poetry every now and then (see my liberal-artsyness is still intact even after coming to the institvte). I occasionally sleep as well. (Just jokes! I actually get around eight hours a night, believe it or not.) Id talk more, but I have a p-set to turn in and class to go to. In the meantime, tell me what you guys want to know more about classes, dorm life, the admissions process, etc. P.S. Hi mom!

The State Owned Commercial Banks In China Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Since the latest Chinese banking reform started from 2001 focus on the ownership transformation via foreign participation and stock listing, there is a great progress for the Chinese Big Four state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs) in their operational efficiency and profitable results. The paper reviews the process of Chinese banking reforms and compares the banking efficiency of nine typical Chinese commercial banks before and after their IPOs empirically (through DEA approach). Using data from 2005 to 2009 of nine banks and analysis them, the objective of this paper is to find out whether the Big Four state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs) are more efficient after their ownership reform than before, and to conclude what is the implication of this ownership reform in Chinese banking system. Key Words: Chinese SOCBs; Ownership reform; Banking efficiency; Data envelopment analysis (DEA) Since Chinese economic reform and open up started in the year 1978, Chinese modern banking system went through a great transformation and achieved a great improvement. After the year 1978, Chinese economic reforms have been focused on Chinese economic transformation from a planning economy to a market-based economy (Chen, Skully and Brown, 2005). As for Chinese banking system, the reform point is the ownership transformation via foreign participation and stock listing. In the year 2006, Bank of China (BOC) and Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) became the first two listed banks in China, which also created a history-the largest scale of IPO around the world at that time. By the end of the year 2009, there were 14 listed banks in China, including Chinese Big Four state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs). Among the 14 listed banks, six of the top seven commercial banks listed i n Shanghai and Hong Kong stock exchange. When China participated in the World Trade Organization (WTO) at December of 2001, Chinese government promised to totally open up its national banking market for all the qualified foreign banks and other foreign financial institutions. In order to cope with the immediate challenges from international financial institutions, the recent banking reform in China was aim to transform the Chinese banking system from a monopolistic and centralized structure to a multi-ownership and competitive banking system (Wu, 2006). With the faster development of banking reform, the problem of banking efficiency has become a focus in modern finance. The banking efficiency indicates the comparison relationship of inputs and outputs, or cost and income during the banking operational business. In other words, banking efficiency refers to the effective allocation of banking resources, which is the combination of banks competitive ability, input-output ability and sustainable development ability. In addition, the banking efficiency is an essential index to measure the performance of banks, the usage of resources, standard of banking management, and ability of sustainable development. On the background of recent banking reform and worldwide financial crisis, the objective of this paper is to compare the bank efficiency of nine typically Chinese commercial banks before and after their IPOs empirically (using DEA approach), to find out whether the Big Four SOCBs are more efficient after their ownership reformation, and to conclude what is the implications of this banking reform. The paper will mainly use Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to conclude the efficiency lever of nine mainly Chinese commercial banks over the period 2005-2009, especially focus on the Big Four SOCBs. Among them, Bank of China (BOC, established in 1912), China Construction Bank (CCB, established in 1954) and Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) were the biggest w inner after world financial crisis, and replaced the western top financial institutions to be the worlds first three most profitable banks since the year 2008. The aim of this paper is twofold. First of all, it reviews the process of Chinese banking reforms and the methods people used to analysis the efficiency of commercial banks around the world. Secondly, we examine the efficiency of Chinese commercial banks, especially the four state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs), to find out whether the four SOCBs are more efficient after their IPOs than before, and to conclude what is the implication of Chinese recent banking reform. The structure of this paper is organized as follows: Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction of the background and objective of this paper; Chapter 2 reviews the literature on the studies of banking efficiency; Chapter 3 discusses the process of Chinese banking ownership reform especially the latest one; Chapter 4 describes empirical model we use to analysis t he banking efficiency- the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA); Chapter 5 describes the data we choose and empirical modeling results; Chapter 6 will discusses conclusion and implications of the whole paper. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 About banking efficiency Banking efficiency can be viewed as the ability of social financing that commercial banks could possess under the condition of security, profitability and liquidity. Banking efficiency includes micro efficiency and macro efficiency, and the former is the object of study in this paper. According to western banking management theory, micro efficiency in banking indicates the comparison relationship of inputs and outputs of commercial banks. In most of studies, banking efficiency is briefly showed as: efficiency = outputs/ inputs. Throughout those studies, there are about three efficiencies in the banking efficiency theory analysis: scale efficiency, scope efficiency and X efficiency (John, Iftekhar and Paul, 2005). Specifically, scale efficiency indicates the improvement of labor productivity or the decline of average product cost, which all stem from the same proportion addition of whole production factors. The scale efficiency can measure the effe cts of inputs of banks on cost saving, while scope efficiency stands for the efficiency of the diversity on products and services, which measures the effects of diversity business of banks on cost saving. The scale efficiency and scope efficiency are the definitions from neoclassical economics, which are all used depends on their external features. According to the neoclassical economics, the direct reason of scale efficiency and scope efficiency is that the large scale and diversity business create more market power, which could decrease the products prices and raise service prices. In the mean time, it is convenient to adopt advanced technology. The X efficiency was put forward aim at the internal situation in banks itself. Harvey Leeibenstein, one of the most famous American economists, put forward the X efficiency theory in 1966 after he studied the factory efficiency in developing countries. Harvey Leeibenstein suggested that firms may own allocative economic efficiency at a ny circumstances. Since it does not have a clear characteristic, it is called X efficiency. The effect of X efficiency theory is based on the information asymmetry and incomplete of labor contract. Under this assumption, the economic efficiency is not a result of the enterprises as a whole decision-maker, but a result of their internal strategy (Fu and Heffernan, 2007). Recently, X efficiency has became a popular topic in efficiency research (Fu and Heffernan, 2007). In this paper, we define the banking efficiency as the comparison relationship of inputs and outputs, or of cost and income during the banking operation business. In other words, banking efficiency refers to the effective allocation of banking resources, which is the combination of competitive ability, input-output ability and sustainable development ability. 2.2 Review on banking efficiency When it comes to measuring banking efficiency, most of the studies before were mainly included three parts: the consequen ce of mergers and acquisitions around banks (Berger and Humphery, 1992; Rhoads, 1993); the contrast of private banking ownership, public and foreign banking ownership (Hasan and Marton, 2003); and the effects of access and deregulation over foreign institution (Chen, 2001; Claessens, 2001). Recently, however, researches on banking efficiency have transferred to compare efficiencies among different commercial banks (including both SOCBs and JSCBs) or to test the coherence among different frontier methods such as SFA and DEA approach (Weill, 2004; Bos and Kolari, 2005). Since the year 1980, with more and more intense competition in banking system, all banks around the world aimed to improve their competition ability and enhance their banking management. Those studies on banking efficiency have transferred to the internal resource allocation in banks, and the X efficiency was paid attention to in theory (Leeibenstein, 1966). At the same time, the relative researches were more depend on the frontier efficiency analysis. Farrell (1957) firstly studied the firm efficiency from micro aspect, and firstly introduced the definition of frontier efficiency function. The main idea of frontier efficiency is that defining all the possible outputs external frontier based on a series of inputs observations. The frontier efficiency is a relatively valid definition, which is now become the most general approach in the micro efficiency research area. The frontier efficiency analysis on banking efficiency comprises the parametric methods and non-parametric methods (Ariff and Luo, 2008). The most popular parametric methods are Stochastic Frontier Approach (SFA), Distribution Free Approach (DFA) and Thick Frontier Approach (TFA), while the most familiar non-parametric methods are Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and Free Disposal Hull (FDH). Among these methods, the methods used in this paper-DEA is viewed as the most frequently used approach (Wei and Wang, 2000; Zheng and Zhan g, 2004; Chen et al., 2005; Fu and Heffernan, 2007; Ariff and Can, 2008; Lin and Zhang, 2009). The most controversy problems in the studies of financial institution efficiency are two aspects: the one is how to define and compute the inputs and outputs of banks; the other is how to make sure the best business boundary to evaluate banking performance. There are three methods for measuring inputs and outputs of banks: production method, intermediate method and profit-output method. Berger and Humphrey (1997) indicated that neither production method nor intermediate method is perfect, they should supply each other: production method is better on analysis the overall standard of banking efficiency and intermediate method is suitable for measure the efficiency of branches. Ferrier and Lovell (1990) demonstrated that considering the operational cost of banks, production method is good to research the banks cost efficiency, while intermediate method can be used to analysis the econom ic difference of different banks. The early studies in banking efficiency mostly focus on scale efficiency and scope efficiency. In European, Dietsch (1993), Zardkoohi and Kolari (1994) indicated that economy of scale plays an important role in banking sector. And in US, studies proved that the average cost of banks is relatively associate with some evidence of scale efficiency (Berger, Hunter and Timme, 1993; Gilbert, 1994; Mester, 1987). Apart from studies on the European and American banks, researches of banks in developing economies, such as in China and India, have become increasingly popular after 1990s. A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, they generally point out that the whole efficiency of Chinese commercial banks has been improved generally after a series of banking reforms since the open up reform in 1978, and the joint-stock commercial banks (JSCBs) were more efficient than those state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs) by about 10 to 20 p ercent (Wei and Wang, 2000; Zhang, 2003; Zheng and Zhang, 2004; Chen, 2005; Fu and Heffernan, 2007; Ariff and Can, 2008; Lin and Zhang, 2009). According to one of the popular classification on banking efficiency, the banking efficiency can be divided into scale efficiency (SE) and technical efficiency (TE). According to Laurenceson  ¼Ãƒâ€¹Ã¢â‚¬  2001 ¼Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ° and Zhao (2008), the inefficiency of the joint-stock commercial banks (JSCBs) mainly because of their unsuccessful on scale efficiency. As for the reason of the inefficiency of state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs), pure technical inef ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ciency (PTE) should took responsible for it (Wei and Wang, 2000; Kumbhakar and Wang, 2005). When it comes to the influence of banking reform, apart from improved efficiency concluded by Chen (2005), Berger, Iftekhar and Zhou (2009) indicated the effectiveness of bringing in foreign institutions for banking operational performance enhancement. In addition, the WTO participation of China was found to be related to a decline in overall efficiency, scale efficiency (SE) and pure technical efficiency (PTE) (Kumbhakar and Wang, 2005; Fu and Heffernan, 2007; Hu et al., 2008). In the meantime, factors that affect banking efficiency had also been explored (Zhang, 2003; Chang and Chiu, 2006; Wang and Tan, 2007; Yao et al., 2007; Ariff and Can, 2008; Fu and Heffernan, 2007; Hu et al., 2008). As for the relationship between stock listing and enhancement of banking efficiency, Liu and Song (2004) proved that among those joint-stock commercial banks (JSCBs), listed banks, such as China Merchants Bank of China (CMBC) and Pudong Development Bank (PDB), had a higher efficiency score than average efficiency score. In addition, Lin and Zhang (2009) observed that listed banks had better performance than those non-listed banks. Since most of the Chinese commercial banks were listed on the Hong Kong and Shanghai stock exchanges over the year 2006 and 2007 , the post-IPO data were available. In recent years, a large amount of studies have paid attention to Chinese banking efficiency to obtain an understanding of the process of Chinese banking reform since the year 1978. Sehrt and Park (2001) demonstrated that Chinese banks are inefficient, and the banking ownership reform started from 1990s has not substantially raise the operational performance and banking efficiency of Chinese banking. In terms of Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), Wei and Wang (2000) tried to empirically conclude the scale efficiency (SE), pure efficiency (PE) and technical efficiency (TE) of Chinese mainly commercial banks within the year 1997, their results proved that the state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs) do suffer technical inefficiency. According to their work, the average technical efficiency of the SOCBs was 62.39% and was much lower than the newly established commercial banks, which the average efficiency of 84.59%. Similarly, the empirical results of C hi, Skuly and Brown (2005) concluded that the scale economies of joint-equity commercial banks (JSCBs) were better than that of state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs). Using DEA approach, Zhao (2000), Qin and Qu (2001), Chen (2002), Zhao et al. (2002), Zhang (2003), and Liu (2004) also confirmed that Chinese SOCBs do suffer inefficiency. To conclude, studies on banking efficiency always focus on the relationship between inputs and outputs. There are three ways to measure the indicators: production method, intermediate method and profit-output method, the first two are usually adopted. Stochastic Frontier Approach (SFA) and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) are the most popular approaches in computing banking efficiency. Chapter 3 Process of Chinese banking reforms Chinese financial system has a long history, but the modern Chinese banking system was created after the year 1948, when Peoples Bank of China (PBOC) established. There were two banking reforms since Chinese modern banking system set up: the first banking transformation started from the economic reform and open up in 1978, and the latest banking ownership reform began after China entered World Trade Organization (WTO) at the end of 2001. The Chinese modern banking system was initially created following the socialist banking system in the former Soviet Union. At that time, Chinese owned a mono banking system, which concentrate all the roles of central banking and commercial banking to the Peoples Bank of China (PBOC). So PBOC, established in 1948, acted as a central bank and the only commercial bank in China for a long period (Dai, 2003). Following the economic reform and open up in 1978, there were several state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs) founded. Peoples Bank of China (P BOC) was divided into two parts: the central bank part and the bank with commercial operation part. The central bank part was still named Peoples Bank of China (PBOC), but the commercial operation part was changed into state-owned banks. Among the state-owned commercial banks, the Bank of China (BOC, established in 1912), China Construction Bank (CCB, established in 1954), Agriculture Bank of China (ABC, established in1979), and Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) made up the Chinese Big Four state-owned commercial banks  ¼Ãƒâ€¹Ã¢â‚¬  SOCBs ¼Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °, which initially owned some lending function separated from PBOC and eventually became the core part of modern Chinese banking system. Big Four were focus on different aspects of Chinese social hierarchy: the Bank of China (BOC) was mainly focus on foreign exchange business, the China Construction Bank (CCB) was mainly provide services to the large constructions in urban area, the Agriculture Bank of Chin a (ABC) was mostly concentrate on rural finance, and the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) was responsible for industrial and commercial activities in urban areas. In the year 1985, the Big Four were allowed to compete in all sectors. Until the middle of 1990s, Chinese banking system was dominated by the PBOC and Big Four. At that stage, some non-state commercial banks and joint-stock commercial banks  ¼Ãƒâ€¹Ã¢â‚¬  JSCBs ¼Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ° were gradually allowed to run business throughout China. Before the year of 1986, all Chinese banks were under the direct leading of the Ministry of Finance and Peoples Bank of China (PBOC). The state-owned enterprises (SOEs) like Big Four were not set up for profit purpose, but played essential social roles in the whole Chinese economy (Subal C.K and Dan W, 2007). After 1978, banking reforms turned its point into Chinese economic transformation from a planning economy to a market-based economy (Chen, Skully and Brown, 2005). The structure of Chinese modern banking system could be illustrated as Figure 1, which is a pyramid structure (Enrico G and Rubens P, 2009). The top of pyramid is represented by Peoples Bank of China (PBOC), the central bank of China. Banks on the second layer are the state-owned banks, which make up the core power of Chinese banking system. It can be divided into state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs) and state-owned policy banks. In addition, joint-stock commercial banks (JSCBs) and city commercial banks are also the significant bank types in the Chinese banking system. Figure 1 Structure of Chinese Banking System In order to raise competition ability after joining WTO and with the foreign financial institution access, Chinese second banking reform started and enhanced after the end of 2001. During this reform, the Chinese government unloaded more than 2.6 trillion yuan of non-performing loans (NPLs) from the three biggest SOCBs (CCB, BOC and ICBC) during the year 19 99 to the year 2005 to restructure Chinese financial system and then pushed the ownership banking reform to the last phase, ownership restructuring via stock listing and foreign merger acquisition. In the year 2003, the Chinese Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC) changed its guidelines to encourage external investment, and this encouragement worked. As a result, all the four biggest SOCBs attracted a large amount of foreign investment from world top financial institutions, such as Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS), Merrill Lynch and Bank of America (BOA). In October 2005, China Construction Bank (CCB) became the first listed SOCB, and this listing trend was followed by Bank of China (June 2006) and Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (October 2006). The initial public offering (IPO) of ICBC (almost $22 billion) was larger than any other IPOs issued in New York, London and Tokyo. By the year of 2009, the last SOCB, Agriculture Bank of China (ABC) finished its listing process. This t ime also witnessed the listing of other joint-stock commercial banks (JSCBs) such as China Mingsheng Bank (CMSB) and China Merchants Bank of China (CMBC), which also had significant impact upon the financial markets (Yao et al., 2008). During the process of listing of Chinese commercial banks, how to deal with the non-performing loans (NPLs) was the most important step. Over this banking reform, the Chinese government has unloaded over 2.6 trillion yuan of NPLs from the three biggest SOCBs (CCB, BOC and ICBC) during the period 1999 to 2005. Table 1 below indicates the amount and proportion of NPLs in major Chinese commercial banks from the year 2005 to 2009. We can see during this period, the whole amount of NPLs decreased from 1313 billion yuan (2005) to 497.3 billion yuan (2009), which achieved a great progress for dealing with NPLs. Specifically, the percentage of NPLs in state-owned banks dropped from 10.49% (2005) to 1.80% (2009), which made it possible for the listing in st ock exchange of state-owned banks. Table 1: NPLs in Major Chinese Commercial Banks (Billion yuan and %) Years 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 All banks 1313 8.61% 1255 7.09% 1268 6.17% 560.3 2.42% 497.3 1.58% State-owned commercial banks (SOCBs) 1072 10.49% 1053 9.22% 1115 8.05% 421 2.81% 362.7 1.80% Joint-stock commercial banks (JSCBs) 147 4.22% 117 2.81% 86 2.15% 65.7 1.35% 63.7 0.95% City commercial banks 84.2 7.73% 65.5 4.78% 51.2 3.04% 48.5 2.33% 37.7 1.30% Sources: China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC) 2005-2009, Bank scope (2005-2009) and authors calculation. Influenced by the world financial crisis started in 2008, share prices of Chinese commercial banks dropped at first. However, as the national economy developed, Chinese banking stocks recovered rapidly (Luo et al. 2011). In the early of 2009, Chinas three largest SOC Bs had replaced the American and European financial giants and become the three largest commercial banks in the world, which measured by the market after they were listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange (HKSE) and Shanghai Stock Exchange (SSE) only two years later. Thanks to their nature of risk-averse, Chinese listed SOCBs were not influenced too much by financial crisis and turned out to be the least affected financial institutions by the current financial crisis among all other large banks in the world. However, in the process of continued step of globalization, the commercial banks need to adjust corporate structure, accelerate their business innovation, cut operational expenditures and improve their risk management ability to make them healthy and powerful in the future (Luo et al. 2011). Chapter 4 Empirical model 4.1. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is the main pattern of non-parametric method originally put forward by Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes in 1978, while Sherma and Gold(1985) first applied DEA to the efficiency evaluation of a bank branch. In 1993, Yue and Berger used DEA to analysis the efficiency among banks again. And in the year 1997, Berger and Mester did the research on the scale of bank, the form of organization and standard of capitalization using DEA approach. DEA is a system analysis method, which is aim to synthesize different indicators and make it an overall indicator, and then use this overall indicator to evaluate the overall situation. As a non-parametric linear programming approach, DEA needs no estimation parameters, and could have an objective result, which makes it a perfect method to analysis the efficiency of banking system. DEA does not need the clear relationship between inputs and outputs; it just uses the linear programmi ng to find the relative valid sample, and uses the plane combined by the relative valid decision-making unit (DMU) combination as the efficiency frontier. If the DMU at last hit the efficiency frontier boundary, it is efficiency with the value of 1; and if the DMU eventually lands inside the efficiency frontier boundary, it is relative inefficiency with the value between 0 and 1. DMU stands for the decision-making unit, which is estimated by the ratio of the weighted outputs over the weighted inputs. Every DMU is an entity responsible for converting multiple inputs into multiple outputs (Wu. 2006). Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes (CCR) model is an input-orientated DEA model, which means measuring the ratio of reduced inputs under a certain output. When it comes to commercial banks, it is easier to control their inputs rather than outputs. So it is better to use an input-orientated DEA model to measure banking efficiency. However, there also exist some drawbacks on DEA approach. When d ata is incomplete, the results from DEA will not the reliable explanation. According to the returns to scale, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) includes two models: the Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes (CCR) model and the Banker, Charnes and Cooper (BCC) model. CCR model refers to the DEA approach under the assumption of constant returns to scale (CRS), while BCC model stands for the DEA approach with variable returns to scale (VRS). The paper will use both CCR and BCC methods to analysis the banking efficiency and then compares their results. If the two results under different assumption are similar, it stands for the banking efficiency has no relationship to bank scale, otherwise, it is related to returns to scale. 4.2 The Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes (CCR) model CCR model is one of the DEA approachs estimated under the assumption of constant returns to scale (CRS), which developed by Charnes, Cooper and Rhodes in 1978. It uses the linear programming to obtain the efficiency fronti er and computes the relative efficiency in each decision-making unit (DMU). If the DMU at last hit the efficiency frontier boundary, it is efficiency with the value of 1; while the other DMU at last inside the efficiency frontier boundary is relative inefficiency with the value between 0 and 1. CCR can be expressed as following: Minise ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¸Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¼Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Subject to ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€¹Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"XijÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ·j ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¤ ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¸Xik i=1, ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦, m ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€¹Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"yrjÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ·j ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¥ yrk r=1, ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦, s; ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ·j=1, ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦,n Where xik and yrk are the ith input and rth output of the kth decision-making unit (DMU), and ÃÆ'Ã… ½Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ · is a non-negative vector of variables. The simple express of Cooper and Rhodes (CCR) Model is based on the assumption that decision-m aking units (DMUs) were acted under constant returns to scale (CRS). 4.3. The Banker, Charnes and Cooper (BCC) model Considering the variable returns to scale (VRS), Banker, Charnes and Cooper (1984) gave up the constant returns to scale (CRS) assumption to measure the efficiency under different returns to scale. The value of scale efficiency in BCC model can compare the technical efficiency of a bank under constant returns to scale and variable returns to scale. If there is no difference between these two results, it stands for the bank inefficiency does not come from the scale factor. Otherwise, the inefficiency of that bank comes from the scale inefficiency. The relationship can be showed as following: TECRS= TEVRS* SE Or SE= TECRS/ TEVRS As shown above, TECRS stands for the technical efficiency value under constant returns to scale (CRS); TEVRS stands for the technical efficiency value under variable returns to scale (VRS). Under the BCC model, the technical ef ficiency can be classified as pure technical efficiency (PTE) and scale efficiency (SE). It is convenient to tell how much inefficiency of commercial banks comes from pure technical inefficiency, and how much from scale inefficiency. 4.4 Variables of Inputs and Outputs under DEA approach In general, there are three methods for measuring inputs and outputs of banks: production method, intermediate method and profit-output method. Under production method, banks are viewed as the service provider to account holders. This assumption need to measure the output under the amount of dealing transaction, which is private and difficult to obtain. The production method is more suitable for study the efficiency of branch of banks. When it comes to intermediate method, financial institutions are treated as the media for savers and investors. Under this assumption, the deposits of savers, salaries and assets are banks inputs, and loans and currency amount are the outputs. The main default o f intermediate method is the neglect of risk. The third approach is the profit-output method makes the operating income as output and the deposits as input. The problem is that the operating income stands for the real cash input, but cannot completely reflect the operating performance. This paper chooses to combine the production method and intermediate method to select the input and output indicators. Specifically speaking, the input variables include deposits, number of employees and fixed assets of commercial banks. And the output indicators include loans and net incomes of those banks. All of three inputs are strongly correlated to the two outputs, and the two output variables are correlating each other. Table 2 below demonstrates the variables of inputs and outputs in this paper. Table 2 Variables of Inputs and Outputs X1 X2 X3 Y1 Y2 Deposits Employees Fixed assets Loans Net incomes Chapter 5 Data and Empirical results 5.1. Data Description All the data for the study in this paper are obtained from the Almanac of Chinas Finance and Banking (2005-2009), Chinese Statistical Yearbook (2005-2009) and Bankscope (2005-2009). The sample was composed of nine listed commercial banks: Industry and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC), Agricultural Bank of China (ABC), Bank of China (BOC), China Construction Bank (CCB), China Investments and Trust Bank (CITIC), China Bank of Communications (CBC), China Mingsheng Bank (CMSB), Shenzhen Development Bank (SDB) and China Merchants Bank of China (CMBC). As showed above, there are three methods for measuring inputs and outputs of banks: production method, intermediate method and profit-output method. In this paper, we choose the combination of production method and intermediate method to select the input and output indicators. The input variables include deposits, number of employees and fixed assets of commercial banks. And the output variables choose loans and net incomes of these 9 commercial banks. The software for the computing the result is DEA Excel Solver developed by Zhu in 2003. 5.2 Empirical results Table 3 describes the inputs and outputs of the 9 Chinese mainly commercial banks in the year 2009. The data for efficiency analysis compose of all 9 banks over the period 2005-2009. According to the table, in the year 2009, Industry and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) owned the largest scale both in fixed assets (117850.53 billion yuan) and deposits (97713 billion yuan), while Agricultural Bank of China (ABC) had the largest number of employees (389827). As for the output variables, ICBC also owned the most amount of loans (40614.44 billion yuan) and net incomes (1672.48 billion yuan). In general, the 4 state-owned commercial banks had the larger scale than those 5 joint-stock commercial banks both in inputs and outputs. Table 3 Inputs and Outputs of Chinese Commercial Banks: 2009 (billion yuan) Bank Deposits Employ ees Fixed Assets Loans Net Incomes ICBC 97713 389827 117850.53 40614.44 1672.48 ABC 74974 440830 88811.55 30149.84 738.09 BOC 58878 262566 77711.53 19680.85 929.65 CCB 80013 301537 96233.55 35113.15 1387.26 CITIC 13419 24180 17750.31 6649.24 192.66 CBC 23728 79122 32949.08 13285.90 373.32 CMSB 11254 12301 14040.87 6584.10 166.00 Sources: Almanac of Chinas Finance and Banking (2005-2009); Chinese Statistical Yearbook (2005-2009) Table 4 presents the estimated CCR efficiency scores for the 9 commercial banks in 2005-2009, while Figure 2 presents the efficiency of the Big Four SOCBs in this period. The results of DEA-CCR model are shown below in Table 5, while Table 6 indicates the efficiency of Chinese Listed Banks before and after IPOs under DEA-BBC model. Table 4 Efficiency Scores of Chinese Commercial Banks: 2005-2009 (CCR) DMU 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Average ICBC 0.80 0.80 0.87 0.94 0.97 0.88 ABC 0.73 0.81 0.87 0.91 0.99 0.87 BOC 0.82 0.90 0.90 0.97 1.04 0.92 CCB 0.73 0.74 0.80 0.97 0.98 0.85 CITIC 0.91 0.95 0.91 0.98 1.01 0.95 CBC 0.82 0.83 0.88 0.87 0.93 0.87 CMSB 0.90 0.78 0.81 0.88 0.90 0.86 SDB 0.82 0.83 0.88 0.88 0.90 0.87 CMBC 0.81 0.83 0.83 0.81 0.84 0.83 Sources: Almanac of Chinas Finance and Banking (2005-2009); Chinese Statistical Yearbook (2005-2009). Figure 2 Efficiencies of the Big Four SOCBs (2005-2009) It can be concluded from Table 4 that during the year 2005-2009, the average efficiency scores of Big Four SOCBs were lower than that of the other commercial banks. However, it is clearly that in the year 2008 and 2009, the efficiencies of state-owned commercial banks were higher than th at of joint-stock commercial banks. According to Figure 2, during the period of 2005 to 2009, the efficiency of the Big Four SOCBs all witnessed a huge increase. Agricultural Bank of China (ABC) is the last SOCB listed on stock exchange. After its ownership reform finished in 2009, the efficiency of ABC rushed to 0.99, about 25% higher than that in 2005. Table 5 Efficiency of Chinese Listed Banks before and after IPO CCR DMU One year before IPO IPO year One year after IPO ICBC 0.80 0.85 0.86 ABC 0.81 0.85 0.87 BOC 0.90 0.93 0.90 CCB 0.74 0.78 0.80 CITIC 0.95 0.98 0.91 CBC 0.83 0.90 0.88 CMSB 0.78 0.80 0.81 SDB CMBC 0.81 0.84 0.83 Sources: Almanac of Chinas Finance and Banking (2005-2009); Chinese Statistical Yearbook (2005-2009). Table 6 Efficiency of Chinese Listed Banks before and after IPO BCC DMU One year before IPO IPO year One year after IPO ICBC 0.94 0.99 1.01 ABC 0.91 0.95 0.97 BOC 0.97 1.04 1.01 CCB 0.97 0.98 1.01 CITIC 0.98 1.01 0.99 CBC 0.87 0.93 0.90 CMSB 0.88 0.90 0.92 SDB CMBC 0.81 0.84 0.85 Sources: Almanac of Chinas Finance and Banking (2005-2009), Chinese Statistical Yearbook (2005-2009). It is obviously to be seen from tables above is that, after the recent banking reform, there is a great progress of banking efficiency for Chinese state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs). Taking Bank of China (BOC) as an example, before its IPO year (2006), the banking efficiency was 0.82, which was a medium level among all the nine commercial banks. However, after it was listed in 2006, the efficiency of BOC increased rapidly over 0.9, and even reached 1.04 in 2009. Compared with the other commercial banks, BOC is now an outstanding international bank with high operational efficiency. As for the other three SOCBs, there is a same trend as BOC. By the end 0f 2009, ABC, the last listed SOCB owned the efficiency of 0.99, which get rid of the fortune of low efficiency and low competition ability. According to table 5 and table 6, the DMUs under CCR a nd BCC approach are different, which stands for that the efficiency of these commercial banks comes from the scale efficiency. Since the preparation of listing for the SOCBs, they did a lot of works including expanded their scale. The banking efficiency of the Big Four was clearly increased as the result of IPOs. The empirical results above indicate that stock listing is an effective way for commercial banks to improve banking efficiency. It can be seen that the average efficiency of SOCBs after IPOs year was about 6 percent more than that before IPOs. So we could confirm that the recent banking reform in China had achieved its expected objective. Since the banking reform focus on the ownership transformation via foreign participation and stock listing, there is a great progress for the Big Four state-owned commercial banks (SOCBs) both in their operational efficiency and in profitable results. Chapter 6 Conclusion and Implications The paper uses DEA approach to analysis the banking efficiency of nine commercial banks, and compares the efficiency scores before and after their IPOs. Since the process of Chinese banking reform started in 2005, the Chinese banking system has developed impressively, especially the Big Four SOCBs. After their IPOs, the Big Four achieved a great progress in the operational efficiency. Nowadays, the SOCBs still dominate the Chinese banking market. Since the world financial crisis happened in 2008, Chinese SOCBs became the top profitable commercial banks around the world, which turned out to be the least affected financial institutions by the current financial crisis. In the year 2009, CCB, BOC and ICBC replaced the American and European giants to become the first three largest commercial banks in the world measured by market after they were listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange (HKSE) and Shanghai Stock Exchange (SSE). In this paper, we evaluate the efficiency of 9 listed commer cial banks over the period 2005-2009, to compare the operational banking efficiency of SOCBs before and after their IPOs. We use the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to measure the banking efficiency, and both CCR model and BCC model are adopted. As the empirical results shown above, we can find out that Chinese SOCBs have benefited a lot from the latest banking reform. After this transition, they have developed a range of competitive strategies in both domestic banking market and overseas market. It is overwhelming evident that a well-functioning financial system is important for a countrys economic growth. Whats more, the  ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ nancial intermediation determines the efficient allocation of savings as well as the return of savings and investment. Chinas banking sector is the most important component of the Chinese  ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ nancial system (with 66% of total  ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ nancial assets in 2009) Although there is a great progress in banking efficiency of SOCBs since the ownership reform, we can still find problems in their ways of operate. Compared with the other commercial banks, SOCBs still have the historical disadvantage which will block the step of their fast development. It is important for SOCBs to solve their historical problems and make them more efficient. Only in this way, Chinese banks could compete with other international financial institutions around the world. REFERENCE Allen L. and A Rai (1996) Operational Efficiency in Banking: An International Comparison. Journal of Banking and Finance. 20, 4, 655-72. Allen N. 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Shujie Yao, Chunxia Jiang, Genfu Fen and Dirk Willenbockel (2007) WTO challenges and efficiency of Chinese banks. Applied Economics. 39, 629-643 Wei Y and L Wang (2000) Zhongguo shangye yinhang xiaolv yanjiu: yizhong fei canshu de fenxi (Ef ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ciency Study of Chinese Commercial Banks, A Non-Parametric Approach). Jingrong Yanjiu (Journal of Financial Research). 3, 88-96. Y. Wang and Y. Luo (2006) DEA efficiency assessment using ideal and anti-ideal decision-making units. Applied Mathmatics and Computation. 173(2), 902-915. Zhang J. H. (2003) Woguo shangyeyinhang de X-xiaolv fenxi (X-Ef ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ciency Study ofChinese Commercial Banks). Jinrong Yanjiu (Journal of Financial Research). 6, 46-57. Zheng M and Y Zhang (2004) Zhongguo yinhang xiaoyi de shizheng fenxi (Empirical Study on the Ef ¬Ãƒâ €šÃ‚ ciency of Chinese Banks). Xiamen Daxue Xebio (Journal of Xiamen University). 6 ¼Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢106-14.

Andrew Jackson The Second President Of The United States

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